Islam in SEA

Jurnal Al-Tamaddun, Bil. 4 (2009) 33 – 65
http://umrefjournal.um.edu.my/filebank/published_article/2930/03%20Bil%204%20dr%20tatiana.pdf


M.A. Rauf

1. Menurut M.A. Rauf, orang Arab bertanggung jawab membawa Islam ke dalam alam Melayu. 
2. Beliau menyatakan bahawa kampung-kampung pertama orang Arab Muslim sudah muncul di Sumatera pada tahun 674 M.
3. Bahan-bahan tersebut menafikan prasangka mengenai sejarah Islam terawal di alam Melayu yang tersebar  di dalam kajian orientalis Barat.
4. Buku M.A. Rauf  “A Brief History of Islam With Special 
5. Reference to Malaya” adalah amat penting kerana mengandungi pendapat objektif tentang sejarah penyebaran Islam di Nusantara dan asal-usulnya.

T. Denisova

1. T. Denisova. “A Step Towards Avoidance of Misunderstanding and Conflict: Uncovering Some Western Myths Regarding MalayIslamic Historical Sources”. (dalam: International Seminar  The Truth of Islam: A Vision for the Ummah and the Rest of the World,  21-22 December 2005 / 19-20 Zulkaedah 1426H).
2. Asal-usul Islam di Malaya dan ciri-ciri khasnya.
3. Sejarah pentadbiran penjajahan Inggeris di alam Melayu.
4. Undang-undang tradisional dan perubahannya pada zaman kerajaan Inggeris.
5. Analisis kegiatan orang Inggeris dalam bidang agama.
6. Analisis sistem undang-undang Malaya (termasuk peraturan syariah) pada zaman  penjajahan Inggeris.
7. Sistem kerajaan dan sistem pentadbiran agama.
8. Analisis kegiatan Inggeris dalam bidang pendidikan agama.
9. pengaruh Islam di masyarakat Melayu sebelum tahun 1963
10. pengaruh Islam dalam proses kesedaran diri orang Melayu pada tahun sejak 1963 sehingga 1970
11. gerakan dakwah semula Islam dan organisasi-organisasi dakwah (ABIM, Darul Arqam, PERKIM dan lain-lain)
12. konsep nasionalisme Melayu pada tahun ke-1970an
13. kegiatan PAS 
14. konsep kerajaan dan politik oleh Dr. Mahathir Mohamad.
15. Pada awal kurun ke-20 di antara para pembela hak-hak orang Melayu terdapat ramai orang Muslim, iaitu bukan Melayu, yang aslinya Indian-Arab. Mereka yang mengepalai gerakan tersebut pada tahun 1906-1930an. 
16. Orang Muslim yang bukan Melayu dianggap sebagai “Melayu” kerana mudah berasimilasi dengan orang Melayu tulen. Mereka berkahwin dengan orang Melayu, berbahasa Melayu dan hidup dalam masyarakat orang Melayu
17. T.Denisova.  A Step Towards Avoidance of Misunderstanding and Conflict: Uncovering Some Western Myths regarding Malay-Islamic Historical Sources. (dalam: International Seminar  “The Truth of Islam : A Vision for the Ummah and the Rest of the World” 21-22 December 2005 / 19-20 Zulkaedah 1426h). 

Moshe Yegar 

1. Moshe Yegar menulis bahawa para saudagar Arab yang membawa Islam ke alam Melayu.
2. Kemudian selepas rumusan tersebut, pengarang menyatakan pula secara betul, bahawa para haji dan syed (bukan saudagar) dianggap sebagai para mubaligh Islam yang paling berwibawa: 
3.  “The hajj’s … were held in high esteem and were extremely influential through their proselytizing efforts, as reformers and missionaries alike.”
4. Mubaligh dan murshid–murshid tersebut menganggap penyebaran Islam di alam Melayu sebagai satu misi yang suci dan istimewa. 
5. Pengarang menegaskan peranan para Syed dalam Islamisasi alam Melayu, terutama syed-syed dari Hadramaut. Beliau menulis: “The Hadramautis were prominent in the Arab community.”
6. “The Malays… stood in awe of them, and addressed them in the same respectful terms as they used towards their rajas.”
7. “The Sayyids were the only group of outsiders accepted by royalty as equal in status. 

Influences on Malayan religious scene

1. Salah satu unsur yang mempengaruhi gerakan semula dakwah Islam di Malaysia adalah gerakan Islam di Indonesia.
2. Pada tahun akhir ke-1970 mulai gelombang yang kedua dalam gerakan dakwah semula Islam di Malaysia. Peringkat tersebut dipengaruhi oleh Ihwan Muslimin (Mesir) dan Jamaati Islami (Pakistan). Pada masa itu gerakan tersebut menjadi lebih radikal. Timbul rayuan supaya menjadikan Malaysia sebagai satu negara Islam berdasarkan al-Qur’an dan Sunnah.
3. kegiatan ‘dakwagirls’. Golongan tersebut merupakan satu aliran radikal. Lazimnya mereka berusaha untuk menakutkan dan mendorong orang yang tidak ikut peraturan mereka (gadis tanpa tudung, orang Muslim dari aliran-aliran lain, orang yang beragama lain).

Chandra Muzaffar

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Mutalib Hussin

1. Sejarah gerakan Islam dan hubungan di antara bangsa-bangsa di Malaysia pada tempoh masa 1963 sehingga 1987 dijelaskan dalam buku Islam and Ethnicity in Malay Politics (KP JB 1744) yang dikarang oleh Mutalib Hussin. 
2. Mutalib Hussin menulis bahawa sejak dahulu kala Islam menyerupai asas tamadun dan kehidupan masyarakat Melayu: “The Islam is an integral and significant factor in Malay culture is beyond dispute. …Islam…became part and parcel of the Malay world-view. The vocabulary of Malay literature and oral tradition is full of Islamic terms and values."
3. Inilah sebabnya kerana Islam menjadi bendera dalam gerakan kemerdekaan dan slogan-slogan utama dalam kegiatan  UMNO selepas kemerdekaan:  “For Islam, it seemed that faith was still considered important by UMNO leaders, but in superficial level. Islam was taken for granted and given prominence only during election times when UNMO sought to counter PAS, since UMNO realized that it could only ignore the faith at its peril, given the integral nature of Islam in Malay culture and identity.” 
4. Maklumat tersebut menunjukkan bahawa Islam menjadi “senjata” dalam pemilihan umum, kerana pengaruh agama di masyarakat Malaysia adalah amat kuat. 
5. Mutalib Hussin menumpukan perhatian kepada perkembangan Islam dan Islamisasi pada tempoh masa semenjak tahun 1963 sehingga 1970an. 
6. Beliau menyebutkan juga para  ulama dari 
7. Indonesia yang berjasa banyak dalam proses Islamisasi di Malaysia.  

M.B. Hooker

1. Bahan-bahan tentang Islam yang tersimpan dalam koleksi John Bastin menunjukkan bahawa terdapat satu salah faham mengenai Islam dan peranannya di dalam masyarakat Melayu, iaitu kontradiksi di antara pendapat orang Melayu mengenai sejarah dan masyarakat sendiri dan pendapat para ilmuwan Barat yang mengkaji alam Melayu sebagai subjek penelitian ilmiah. 
2. Para cendekiawan Melayu menganggap Islam sebagai asas kesedaran kebangsaan dan kaedah kemajuan negara. 
3. Namun ada beberapa ilmuwan Barat yang menganggap Islam sebagai unsur negatif yang mengakibatkan kemunduran masyarakat Melayu.  
4. Pendapat bahawa agama (termasuk Islam) adalah unsur  negatif yang tidak memajukan masyarakat tersebar di dalam sosiologi Barat.  
5. Hal tersebut dicerminkan dalam buku “Islam in South East Asia”  (KP JB 1743) yang disusun oleh M.B. Hooker. 
6. Buku tersebut menyerupai kumpulan makalah tentang Islam di Asia Tenggara dan ciri-ciri khasnya (etnik, bahasa, budaya, hubungan budaya Islam Melayu dengan tradisi Hindu-Buddha dan sistem penjajahan Eropah).  
7. Di dalamnya terdapat makalah sebagai berikut- MB Hooker “Introduction: The Translation of Islam into South-East Asia.”
8. Dalam makalah tersebut pengarang mengikut pendapat bahawa Islam datang ke dalam Asia Tenggara pada kurun ke-13 dan ke–14. 
9. Beliau menjelaskan bahawa pendapatnya berdasarkan fakta-fakta yang berikutnya, iaitu batu-batu nisan yang terawal bertarikh pada kurun ke-14 dan  ke-15, dan berdasarkan pada maklumat-maklumat Ibn Battutah, Marco Polo dan Tome Pires; berdasarkan tarikh Hikayat Raja Pasai dan Sejarah Melayu.  
10. M.B. Hooker juga mengikut konsep Snouk Hurgronje, bahawa Islam di Nusantara datang dari India. Sebabnya kerana menurut pendapat beliau sastera Melayu di Sumatera dan Melaka berdasarkan tradisi India Selatan dan dipengaruhi olehnya. 
11. Justeru itu  beliau tidak menerima pendapat bahawa para ulama Hadramaut lah yang membawa Islam ke alam Melayu.
12. Sebagai subjek-subjek yang terpenting yang berkaitan dengan Islam di Nusantara pengarang menyebutkan fikh, sastera dan falsafah. 
13. M.B. Hooker menganggap genre tersebut sebagai bentuk penyebaran Islam di alam Melayu pada kurun ke 16-17. 
14. Terdapat senarai manuskrip-manuskrip yang berkaitan dengan subjek tersebut. Senarai manuskrip-manuskrip dilampirkan dengan keterangan. 
15. Kesimpulan yang utama beliau adalah bahawa Islamization di alam Melayu bercampur dengan adat iaitu dengan tradisi Hindu-Buddha dan adat-istiadat pra-Islam iaitu: “Compromise, syncretism and localized sophistry are  the norm rather than the exception”.
16. Pendapat tersebut berdasarkan analisis adat-istiadat orang Muslim di pelbagai pulau dan kampung. Memang dalam adat-istiadat sehari hari terutama di Jawa, Palembang, Kedah dan tempat-tempat yang lain.
17. Hal ehwal undang-undang di masyarakat Melayu dan pengaruh syariah di dalamnya dijelaskan dalam makalah M.B. Hooker, Muhammad Law and Islamic Law. 
18. Pengarang menumpukan perhatian kepada perkembangan undang-undang Islam di Asia Tenggara. Pengarang menjelaskan  dua istilah iaitu “Muhammadan Law” dan “Islamic Law”. 
19. Menurut pendapat beliau dua istilah tersebut tidak sama dari segi maknanya. 
20. “Muhammadan law” atau Undang-undang Muslim adalah kodeks undang-undang untuk orang Muslim secara individual. Manakala istilah  Islamic Law adalah undang-undang Islam berdasarkan al-Qur’an dan Sunnah. 
21.  M.B. Hooker (1983), Muhammad Law and Islamic Law in Hooker, M.B. Islam in South East Asia. Leiden, h. 160-182.

A.C. Milner

1. AC Milner, dalam  Islam and the Muslim State, makalah tersebut adalah tentang pengaruh Islam di dalam sistem kerajaan Melayu. 
2. Pengarang menjelaskan istilah-istilah ‘kadi’ (dalam pelbagai ejean) imam, shariah,  undang-undang,  kerajaan, ummat yang terdapat dalam pelbagai teks sejarah di alam Melayu. 
3. Beliau juga menumpukan perhatian kepada pelbagai kanun undang-undang yang tersebar di alam  Melayu (undang-undang Melaka, Undang-undang Laut dan lain-lain) yang membuktikan peranan syariah di masyarakat Melayu. 
4. Pengarang tidak setuju dengan pendapat J.M. Gullick, bahawa Islam di alam Melayu  tidak mempunyai peranan apa-pun.
5. A.C. Milner menegaskan juga bahawa dalam sistem kerajaan Melayu ada unsur-unsur tamadun Hindu Buddha. 
6. Sistem kerajaan dan status ‘sultan’ di alam Melayu dipengaruhi oleh tradisi Persia – “Persianised Muslim court”.
7. Kesimpulan tersebut berdasarkan maklumat-maklumat dari  Sejarah Melayu mengenai Iskandar Zulkarnain dan Nizam al-Mulk (Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Ali –al-Tusi, 1018 - 1092) iaitu seorang vasir Saljuk Persia
8. Sultan-sultan Aceh ikut cara kehidupan para pemimpin India iaitu dinasti Mogul Agung yang dianggap sebagai “Persianised Mogul dynasty”. 
9. Sementara itu pengarang menganggap konsep “Insan al-kamil” yang tersebar di dalam alam Melayu sebagai salah satu unsur tamadun Parsi juga. 
10. Pendapat tersebut berdasarkan data-data tentang asal-usul para tokoh  Tassawuf yang merumuskan konsep “insan al-kamil’ tersebut. Katanya bahawa Ibn alArabi (wft. 1240) dan Abd al-Karim al-Jili (1365 -  1428) konon berasal dari Parsi. Walaupun al-Jili itu berasal dari kawasan Gilan (Iran), falsafah dan konsepnya menyerupai tamadun tassawuff yang umum yang tersebar di seluruh alam Islam. Konsep “insan al-kamil” tersebut adalah konsep universal yang tidak berkaitan dengan tamadun Parsi.  
11. Dalam makalah terdapat juga pelbagai keterangan tentang sejarah Islam yang terawal di Nusantara. 
12. Mengenai sejarah Islamization Asia Tenggara AC Milner menulis, bahawa orang Arab yang membawa agama ke dalam alam Melayu tidak berwibawa dan tidak mampu menarik perhatian raja-raja tempatan dan para penduduk tempatan.  

J.M. Gullick

1. J.M. Gullick (1965), Indigenious Political Systems of Western Malaya. London

Noer Deliar

1. Hal ehwal Islam dalam masyarakat Malaysia masa kini dan darjah perkembangannya dibicarakan dalam karya Noer  Deliar yang bertajuk Contemporary Political Dimension of Islam.
2. Makalah tersebut adalah tentang keadaan Islam pada masa kini.
3. Noer  Deliar (1983), Contemporary Political Dimension of Islam in Hooker, M.B. Islam in South East Asia. Leiden, h. 183-215.

Roy F. Ellen

1. Roy F. Ellen “Social Theory, Ethnography and the Understanding of Practical Islam in South-East Asia”.
2. Roy F. Ellen  (1983),  Social Theory, Ethnography and the Understanding of Practical Islam in South-East Asia in Hooker, M.B., Islam in South East Asia. Leiden h. 50-91.
3. Makalah mengandungi hasil-hasil kajian tentang Islam di Asia Tenggara dari sudut ilmu sosiologi dan etnografi. 
4. Lazimnya para ilmuwan Barat mengambarkan tamadun Melayu Islam berdasarkan anekdot-anekdot dan sumber yang tidak boleh dipercayai:  “What records exist commonly confused and conflate the distinctively Islamic with a myriad local traditions, and a few of the greater ones as well”. 
5. “In Malaya several generations of scholar-administrators built up a picture of Malay Muslim culture based on a characteristic anecdotal empiricism”.
6. Sebagai contoh ilmuwan tersebut R.F. Ellen menyebutkan nama-nama seperti berikut: I.H.V. Evans, C.A. Gibson-Hill, J.D. Gimlette, H.D. Noone, W.E. Maxwell, W.W. Skeat, C.O. Blagden, F. Swettenham, RJ Wilkinson, P.D.R.Williams-Hunt and R.O. Winstedt.
7. Beliau menyebutkan bahawa istilah  Muslim dianggap sama maknanya dengan istilah  Melayu dan istilah  masuk Islam – sama maknanya dengan masuk Melayu. Berdasarkan bahan-bahan tentang adat istiadat Islam di Jawa, pengarang menjelaskan juga istilah “kejawen” dan perbezaannya di antara kejawen dan Islam (termasuk tasawwuf). 
8. Terdapat juga keterangan tentang istilah ‘scripturalism’ (cara kepercayaan ortodoks, berdasarkan teks-teks suci), ‘salmetan, santri, kiai, fundamentalism, modernism’ dan lain-lain. 
9. Dalam karangan Roy F. Ellen terdapat  juga analisis mengenai unsur-unsur adat dan Islam dalam kehidupan sehari-hari orang Muslim di Nusantara. 
10. Pengarang menegaskan bahawa adat lazimnya tidak bercanggah dengan peraturan Islam.

Mubin Sheppard

1. Sheppard, Mubin (1962), The Hajj. The Straits Times Annual for  pp. 24-27. (KP JB 1750).

Prof. Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas

1. Prof. al-Attas bersangkal pendapat dengan R.O. Winstedt dan T.S. Raffles yang menyatakan bahawa sastera Melayu klasik telah dimusnahkan oleh kedatangan Islam. 
2. al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib (1970), The Mysticism of Hamzah Fansuri. Kuala Lumpur, pp. xvii, 556; (KP JB 1751).

Hamzah Fansuri

1. Monograf menunjukkan bahawa di alam Melayu wujud tamadun falsafah dan tasawwuf yang amat menarik dan lengkap. 
2. Hal tersebut menafikkan prasangka bahawa orang Melayu memeluk Islam secara formal, iaitu tidak mendalam sahaja.  
3. Dalam senarai tajuk-tajuk mengenai Islam terdapat tiga judul, yang berkaitan dengan haji. 
4. Ternyata subjek tersebut menarik banyak perhatian John Bastin dan lazimnya menjadi subjek kajian para ilmuwan. 
5. Disebutkan bahawa maklumat-maklumat mengenai haji sukar dicari kerana para haji Melayu biasanya tidak menulis catatan peringatannya dan tidak berminat (tidak suka) berbincang tentang diri sendiri. 

Prof. William R. Roff

1. Kertas kerja  “The Conduct of the Hajj from Malaya and the First Malay Pilgrimage Officer” (KP JB 1748) yang dikarang oleh William, R. Roff mengandungi maklumat tentang pengendalian haji dari Malaya ke Mekkah pada tempoh masa akhir kurun ke-19 sehingga 1940. 
2. Dalam karya W.R.Roff  terdapat beberapa data statistik mengenai para penziarah dari India (termasuk Nusantara) yang dirakamkan dalam laporan misi-misi Inggeris yang hadir di Mekkah semenjak tahun 1861. 
3. Pengarang menegaskan bahawa data-data statistik yang pertama mengenai para haji dari Jawa terdapat pada tahun 1883-1884. 
4. Menurut data-data tersebut jumlah penziarah dari Singapura adalah 3342 orang; yang sampai dari alam Melayu ke Jeddah – 7716 orang. Sekitar 4392 orang menyerupai jumlah haji dari tempat-tempat Nusantara yang lain. 
5. Terdapat juga datadata mengenai cukai dan pembayaran rasmi yang lain yang membayar para haji untuk mendapatkan semua dokumen-dokumen untuk  pergi haji. 
6. Kertas kerja tersebut mengandungi bahan-bahan yang  amat penting tentang pengendalian haji dari alam Melayu ke Mekkah. 
7. Ternyata pengendalian haji di alam Melayu adalah peristiwa yang biasa dan hubungan di antara alam Melayu dan Mekah wujud dan  berkembang walaupun tidak disokong oleh pentadbiran penjajahan Eropah.

Dutch Empire and the Hajj

How far did the Dutch empire retain its status as a maritime empire in the nineteenth century? How big was Dutch espionage on the Muslim World?

Adventurer's photos capture a bygone Mecca by Barry Neild for CNN, 18 November 2010, updated 1954 GMT (0354 HKT)
http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/meast/11/11/mecca.hajj.snouck/index.html

Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje - with his rare 1885 photographs and sound recordings of Mecca.
http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/meast/11/11/mecca.hajj.snouck/index.html

Mecca: A Dangerous Adventure -- Snouck Hurgronje's early photographs 1885 is showing until December 6, 2010 at Dubai's Empty Quarter Gallery.

The earliest Dutch recordings of Makkah was in 1885, by Snouck Hurgronje. He was a pioneer multimedia journalist, and was accused as a Dutch spy. He stayed in Makkah for 5 months and converted to Islam. He fled Makkah when he took something and was accused a thief. he left his camera and recordings to a Syed partner. Syed continued to write to Hurgronje in Netherlands. Hurgronje left his pregnant Ethiopian wife in Makkah but they remarried and lived in Indonesia. He married more wives. What happened to him in the end? Nobody knows.

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Ibn Battuta's Rihla (1304-1377) and French African Hajj 1946-1958

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http://www.academia.edu/217100/Between_Empire_Umma_and_the_Muslim_Third_World_The_French_Union_and_African_Pilgrims_to_Mecca_1946-1958


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Ibn Battuta - Rihla - Journey to Makkah:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dREv-gqUTac

Ibn Battuta Documentary
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EvYbXsMBJ5I

Ibn Battuta's Rihla - World Digital Library
http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7470/

My Rihla - Bruce Sterling
http://vserver1.cscs.lsa.umich.edu/~crshalizi/Sterling/My_Rihla.html

The Travels of Ibn Battuta
http://ibnbattuta.berkeley.edu/13conclusion.html

S. Firth. New Guinea under the Germans (1983)

Hajj Papers

http://www.thehillcenter.org/pdfs/The_Hajj_bibliography.pdf

http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/undergraduate/tripos-papers/part-ii-papers-for-2012-2013/paper-30


Islam, the sea and the hajj 

Edward Simpson and Kai Kresse, eds. Struggling with history: Islam and cosmopolitanism in the
western Indian Ocean (2008).

Nile Green, Bombay Islam: The Religious Economy of the West Indian Ocean, 1840-1915 (2011).

Felicitas Becker, Becoming Muslim in Mainland Tanzania  (2008) Chapters 6,7,8

K Kresse, Philosophizing in Mombasa: Knowledge, Islam and intellectual practice on the Swahili
coast  (2007).

A Bang, Sufis and Scholars in the sea: family networks in East Africa

Engseng Ho, Graves of Tarim: geneaology and mobility across the Indian ocean

U Freitag and W. G. Clarence-Smith, eds. Hadhrami traders, scholars and statement in the Indian
ocean 1750s-1960s (1997)

Michael Miller, ‘Pilgrim’s Progress: The Business of the Hajj’ in Past and Present. May 2006.

Dale F. Eickelman and James Piscatori, Muslim Travellers: Pilgrimage, Migration, and the Religious Imagination (Berkeley: 1990)

F.E. Peters, The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places (Princeton: 1994) Ch4 onwards.

Barbara Metcalf, ‘What happened in Mecca? Mumtaz Mufti’s ‘Labbaik’’ in Robert Folkenflik, ed. The Culture of Autobiography (Stanford, 1993)

M N Pearson, Pilgrimage to Mecca: The Indian Experience (Princeton, 1996), Chapters after 1750

D. Parkin and S. Headley eds. Islamic prayer across the Indian ocean (2000).

Tim Youngs ed. Travel Writing in the Nineteenth Century: Filling the Blank Spaces, Chapter 7 on Nawab Sikander Begam’s haj pilgrimage.

Sugata Bose, A Hundred Horizons: the Indian Ocean in the age of global empire (Cambridge, Mass., 2006), Chapter Six, “Pilgrim’s Progress under Colonial Rules”, pp.193-233

Saurabh Mishra, ‘Beyond the bounds of time? The Haj pilgrimage from the Indian subcontinent,
1865-1920’, pp.31-44, in Harrison and Pati (eds.), The Social History of Health and Medicine in
Colonial India (London, 2009)

M.C. Low, ‘Empire and the Hajj: pilgrims, plagues and Pan-Islam 1865-1908’, International Journal
of Middle Eastern Studies, 40, 2008, 269-290

William Roff, ‘Sanitation and Security: the imperial powers and the nineteenth century Hajj’, Arabian Studies VI, 1982, 143-61

William Ochsenwald, Religion, society, and the state in Arabia : the Hijaz under Ottoman control,
1840-1908 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1984).  (ch 2: religion, ch. 3:  pilgrimage)

Mecca the blessed Madina the Radiant by Dr.Emel Esin

William R Roff

http://www.ed.ac.uk/schools-departments/literatures-languages-cultures/islamic-middle-eastern/people/roff

Professor William R Roff

Honorary Professorial Fellow

Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies

University of Edinburgh

19 George Square

Edinburgh

EH8 9LD

Email: william.roff@btinternet.com

Research interests

The social and intellectual history of Islam in Southeast Asia, 18th-20th centuries, and the comparative study of Muslim societies with special reference to Arabia, Egypt and South Asia and to such institutions as the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), education, Islamic economics, and legal systems.

List of Publications 
http://www.ed.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.102519!/fileManager/william-roff.pdf

Books

1. Roff, W. R. 1982. "Sanitation and security: the imperial powers and the nineteenth century Hajj,"  in Arabian Studies, 6, pp. 143-160. Cambridge.
2. Roff, W. R. 1984. "The Meccan pilgrimage: its meaning for Southeast Asian Islam," in Islam in Asia. Volume II: Southeast and East Asia. R. Israeli & A.H. Johns (eds.). Jerusalem: Magnes Press.
3. Roff, W. R. 1985. "Pilgrimage and the history of religions: theoretical approaches to the Hajj," in Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies. R. C. Martin (ed.), pp. 78-86. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
4. Roff, W. R. (ed.) 1987. Islam and the Political Economy of Meaning: Comparative Studies of Muslim Discourse. University of California Press.
5. Roff W. R. 2009. Studies on Islam and Society in Southeast Asia. Singapore: NUS Press.

Papers

1. "An argument about how to argue" in Islamic Legal Interpretation: Muftis and their Fatwas. Harvard University Press, 1996.
2. "Patterns of Islamisation in Malaysia, 1890s-1990s: exemplars, institutions and vectors" in Journal of Islamic Studies (Oxford) 1998.
3. "Social science approaches to understanding religious ritual: the special case of the Hajj” in Malaysia: Islam, Society and Politics, ISEAS, Singapore, 2001.
4. "Murder as an aid to social history: the Arab community in Singapore in the early twentieth century” in Transcending Borders: Arabs, Politic, Trade and Islam in Southeast Asia. KITLV, Leiden, 2002.
5. "Pondoks, madrasas and the production of ‘ulama in Malaysia” in Studia Islamika (Jakarta), 2004.
6. "The Ins and Outs of Hadrami journalism in Malaya, 1900-1941: assimilation or identity maintenance?” in Proceedings, International Conference on Yemeni-Hadramis in Southeast Asia, Kuala Lumpur, 2005.
7. “Functions of the Internet in a Sectarian Islamic Context,” in ISIM Review (Leiden), numéro 15, Spring 2005, pp. 50.
8. “La présence belge en Égypte, 1891-1961,” in Chronos, n°9, July 2004, pp. 173-210.
9. Roff, William, R. The Conduct of the Hajj from Malaya and The First Malay Pilgrimage Officer. Occasional Papers N1; Institute of Malay Language, Literature and Culture; National university of Malaysia, pp. 81-112.

Roff, William. R

1. Roff, William. R (1982), Sanitation and Security: The Imperial Powers and Nineteenth Century Hajj, Arabian Studies, VI, pp.143-160.
2. Dalam makalah “Sanitation and Security: the Imperial Powers and Nineteenth Century Hajj” terdapat  maklumat tentang sanitasi dan keselamatan di Mekah pada masa haji serta tentang usaha-usaha pentadbiran penjajahan Eropah dalam bidang keselamatan dan sanitasi. Pengarang menegaskan bahawa pada tahun ke-1820an muncul dan tersebar di Eropah penyakit kolera yang konon (katanya) datang dari Asia bersama dengan para penziarah dari Asia. Pengarang menyatakan bahawa maklumat rasmi tentang penyakit kolera di Arabia terdapat pada tahun 1821 dan juga pada tahun 1828-1929. Pada tahun 1831 dimaklumkan mengenai 20 ribu orang haji yang mati kerana kolera tersebut.  
3. Historians, echoing colonial officials’ anxieties about cholera and pan-Islamism, have generally presented the hajj in the decades leading up to World War One as a source of “twin infection”.
4. Dimaklumkan juga bahawa jumlah umum para jemaah haji dari alam Melayu pada tahun ke-1850an adalah sekitar 2000 orang dari Malaya dan 5-7000 orang setahun dari kawasan Benua Kecil Asia Tenggara. 
5. Terdapat juga jaswal jumlah umum haji dari negara-negara Timur pada tahun 1882 sehingga 1900 (ms. 150). 
6. Diketemui juga  cerita mengenai sejarah misi-misi Ingerris di Jiddah dan Mekah pada masa yang sama. 
7. Makalah tersebut adalah amat menarik kerana mengandungi data-data yang nyata tentang pengendalian haj ke Mekah dan keadaan di dalam Mekah dan Madinah. 
8. Data tersebut membuktikan (mengesahkan) beberapa maklumat dari teks sejarah  Tuhfat al-Nafis (1866) mengenai haji yang dilaksanakan oleh Raja Ahmad Bin Raja Haji dan anaknya Raja Ali Haji.  
9. Lawatan haji tersebut diadakan pada tahun 1828. 
10. Dimaklumkan bahawa Raja Ahmad jatuh sakit juga. Bila beliau sembuh beliau bersumpah supaya melaksanakan haji.

Hajj references by Roff, as provided by Dr Lubis (29 April 2013):

"The Conduct of Hajj From Malaya and The First Malay Pilgrimage Officer," SARI No. 1, 1975. 

"Pilgrimage and the History of Religions: Theoretical Approaches to the Hajj", in Richard C. Martin (ed), Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies, Tuscon: The University of Arizona Press, 1985.

"Sanitation and Security: The Imperial Powers and the Nineteenth Century Hajj", Arabian Studies, Vol. VI, 1982.

"The Meccan Pilgrimage its Meaning for Southeast Asian Islam", in Raphael Israel and Anthony H. Johns (eds.) Islam in Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984.

"Social Science Approaches to Understanding Religious Practice, The Special Case of the Hajj", in Virginia Hooker & Norani Othman (eds.), Malaysia: Islam, Society and Politics, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2003.

William R. Roff, Studies on Islam and Society in Southeast Asia, Singapore: NUS Press, 2009.
http://www.nus.edu.sg/nuspress/subjects/history/978-9971-69-406-7.html
http://www.amazon.com/Studies-Islam-Society-Southeast-Asia/dp/9971694069

1. Peter Riddell's Book Review in IJAPS, Vol. 7, No. 2 (July 2011) published by Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2011: http://ijaps.usm.my/?page_id=548 http://ijaps.usm.my/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/BookReview_StudiesOnIslamandSocietyinSoutheastAsia.pdf Part V concludes the volume with essays written in 2002, 1982 and 1975 (in order of volume presentation). The three essays all consider issues connected with the Muslim pilgrimage, the Hajj, such as the methodology of studying the pilgrimage ritual, as well as practical matters to do with sanitation and security and specific issues connected with Malays on pilgrimage.
2. Clive S. Kessler's Keynote Address in Akademika 78 (Jan.-April) 2010; 103-108. Malay National Narrative and Malaysian Historiography: Before Postmodernity and Its Discontents, and After Too. http://www.ukm.my/penerbit/akademika/ACROBATAKADEMIKA78/akademika78[10]A4.pdf The final section of the book deals with the hajj rites and related health and sanitation problems - the "twin infections" of cholera and smallpox, health policies and regulations re the hajj procedures and monitoring the pilgrims' health. It also includes an essay on Abdul Majid bin Zainuddin, a former teacher and Malay Pilgrimage Officer (1924-39) prior to WWII, and whose autobiography is, The Wandering Thoughts of a Dying Man (Oxford U.P. Kuala Lumpur 1978), which Roff saw to its publication.
3. Michael Laffan's Book Review: http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7668564. Michael Laffan (2010). Review of William R. Roff  'Southeast Asia. Studies on Islam and society in Southeast Asia' Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 41, pp 350-351. doi:10.1017/S0022463410000135. The book is divided into 5 themes: Historiography and methodology, Malaya and Singapore, Arab world connections, Kelantan and the Meccan pilgrimage.

Russian Hajj 1880s-1910

http://www.ucis.pitt.edu/nceeer/2011_824-08_Kane.pdf

Black Sea
Odessa
Penza
Samara
Kharkov
Siberia
Sevastopol
Batumi
Tashkent
Kashgar
Baku
Feodosiia
Beirut
Yanbu
Jeddah


Transportation Milestones

• In 1903 direct Odessa-Jeddah service was introduced on Russian steamships; this made it possible for Muslim pilgrims to get from the Black Sea to Red Sea ports without changing ships.
• In 1906 a rail line was finished linking Tashkent to Orenburg and on to Odessa.
• By 1908 the Ministry of Transport had organed special “hajj cars” for rail service between Tashkent and Odessa.
• After 1908, Russian steamship companies built hajj facilities not just in Odessa but all around the Black Sea
• By 1909 the Volunteer Fleet was running “Hejaz steamships” out of Odessa exclusively for Muslim pilgrims.

The Hajj Season in Odessa

• The hajj traffic dramatically altered Odessa’s human landscape, filling the streets with crowds of Muslim men – women and children were rare – most of them poor, exhausted, and dirty from a week spent crammed into a poorly ventilated train car.
• On their backs they carried huge sacks stuffed with necessities for the weeks-long journey: blankets, carpets, cups, pots and pans, stores of dried bread (sukhar’), fruits and vegetables, and metal locks and samovars to sell in Arabian markets.
• Most spoke no Russian and were at the mercy of self-styled “hajj agents” that swarmed their arriving trains.
• Consistent with the fixed timing of the hajj by the Islamic calendar, these crowds were intensely seasonal: they formed in Odessa suddenly, over a span of a few months, and disappeared as quickly, boarding steamships a month or so ahead of the scheduled rituals in Arabia (the date of which shifted back eleven days each year, in line with the calendar’s lunar cycles).
• For locals looking on, the initial effect must have been something like seeing the carnival come to town: costumed figures parading through the streets and speaking in strange tongues, the air thick with smells of rotting food and long-unwashed bodies, paper tickets littering the streets, shady types lurking in the margins, before the crowds cleared and the whole thing was over.
• However short-lived hajj season in Odessa was, it had become an integral, though controversial, part of the city’s economic and political life by the early twentieth century.
• Entire industries sprung up to serve the crowds: bakeries producing “Sart” breads, firms hiring out Turkic-speaking interpreters, travel agencies offering cut rates on steamers to Arabia, and criminal rings – found everywhere the lucrative hajj crowds moved – hawking everything from fake Chinese passports to tickets on non-existent steamers.

Improvements of the Russian Hajj Conditions

• In 1897 Tsar Nicholas II established the Commission on Measures for Prevention and Struggle against the Plague, Cholera, and Yellow Fever (KOMOCHUM). Around that time the tsarist government began sending Russian doctors and spies into Arabia to collect information about conditions on hajj ships, and the spread of disease.
• In 1904 the Chief Medical Inspectorate (under the Ministry of Internal Affairs) began drafting rules for monitoring Russia’s Muslim pilgrims abroad to control the spread of cholera.
• A hajj complex called the Khadzhikhana was built in Odessa to accommodate 3,000 pilgrims and serve as a one-stop centre for matters concering the hajj
• Hajj pilgrims were disinfected in batches, naked and labeled. They also included Turkestan, China and Tartar pilgrims. Incidence of cholera among Russian hajj pilgrims decreased at the next hajj.
• Railroads, ROPiT, and the Volunteer Fleet competed in organizing the hajj traffic

Other references

Dominic Lieven, Empire: The Russian Empire and its Rivals

Meet Rohani bt Omar

This is my second post on Rohani Omar, who makes souvenirs for the Physiology Club which collects money to fill the patients' fund at Hospital USM. This time I took her photo as she brought me some  laminated bookmarks. She draws beautiful flowers on the back of the bookmarks which I think would also be great as wall motifs anywhere. There was yellow porcelain teapot with flowers which I bought from her Club at my professorial talk in 2010 - I still have it near me at home when I watch TV or do my writing work on my laptop. This is only a sample of her work. I think she is a genuine aspiring and talented artist who draws flowers beautifully freehand. You must meet her and see her beautiful art work, and support her work for her Club and our hospital fund.

Puan Rohani bt Omar
Scientific Officer
Dept of Physiology
School of Medical Sciences
Universiti Sains Malaysia
16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan
Malaysia
Phone : 609-7673000 ext. 6165
Fax : 609-7653370
Email: orohani@kck.usm.my

The Islamic Lunar Calendar

http://www.hijricalendar.com/qibla.html

Allah's perfect Creations

Quran Surah 9:36-37

Creation of time (exactness of time)
Solar day (sunset, sunrise)
Lunar months (moonset, moonrise)
Qiblat prayer direction and international dateline (eastward, westward towards Kaabah)
Muslim prayer times (Subuh, Zohor, Asar, Maghrib and Isya)
Ramadan Fasting (determination of start and end)